Body & Mind Training Center

Social Influences on Performance :

Watching others, family, peers and role models and learning from their behaviour and experiences affects the way we perform and behave on a daily basis. This learning of accepted behaviour's, values, rights and wrongs when we are children is known as socialisation. Physical education plays an important role in socialisation from a young age.


In Physical Education demonstration and observation of others performing a skill is a vital way of learning. It has been shown that an individuals performance will improve most when the demonstration is from a skilled superior, such as a teacher or coach. However, demonstrations from unskilled peers also are often effective.

In 1961 Albert Bandura came up with seven points which must be considered when using models and demonstrations for young people. These are:

Appropriate behaviour in-line with social norms is more likely to be copied
Behaviour is imitated if it is thought to be relevant to the individual
The more similar the demonstrator is to the individual, the more likely they are to imitate their actions
Teachers and coaches who are encouraging and approachable are more likely to be imitated
Powerful role models, such as professional sports people and celebrities are more likely to be copied
Young people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of models whose behaviour is condoned by their superiors (parents/teachers etc)
Consistent behaviour is more likely to be copied

Bandura progressed further with this theory to develop a model to show the effect of demonstration on the learning of skills:





Effect of Spectators :

The effect of having others present during performers can be either positive or negative. Performers can suffer with evaluation apprehension, which increases arousal levels which in turn increases heart rate and causes other detrimental effects. This is linked to Hull's drive theory. The following relates to how this increased arousal can affect performance:

The presence of an audience increases arousal
Increases in arousal will trigger the dominant response
If a skill is well-learned then the response will be correct
If the skill is new or poorly learned the response will be incorrect
There is also the question of whether a 'home' crowd affects performance. For some individuals a home crowd is an advantage due to the friendly encouragement. For others a home crowd usually includes family and friends and this thought increases the level of evaluation apprehension. The response of an athlete to a crowd may well relate to his personality type. Type A personalities do not like to be judged!

The negative effects of this social facilitation can be dealt with using the following tips:


Relaxation techniques
Imagery
Explanation and understanding of the way in which audiences can affect individuals
Encouragement and support from team members
New skills should be taught in a non-evaluative way

Groups and Teams :


The aim of this lesson is to understand the reasons for success and pitfalls involved in team sport participation (Equivalent to UK A Level Physical Education)
Team: "Two or more persons interacting with one another and influencing each other" (Shaw, 1976)

Group: "Has a collective identity, sharing a common purpose with structured communication patterns" (Carron, 1980)


Group Performances :


The following equation was produced by Steiner (1972) to demonstrate the relationship between performance of the team and the individuals:

Actual productivity = best potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes

These faulty processes can be divided into two groups:


Co-ordination problems:

Tactics and plays involving more than one individual (most in team sports!) are subject to problems due to a lack or co-ordination. Examples include making a run too early or a poorly times pass.


Motivational problems:

Team performances often result in individuals performing below their best, there are two theories as to why this is often the case:


The Ringlemann effect:

Research has demonstrated that a team does not usually work as many times better than the number of individuals within the team. For example, a tug of war team containing 6 members, may not perform 6 times better than an individual. This is due to:


Social loafing:

Team players loose the motivation to work as hard because their efforts are not clear and a good performance is not wholly dependant on their performance.



Cohesion and Performance :

Cohesion: The reason that a group of people have come together and the resistance to the group breaking up



Two types of cohesion may be present in different teams:

Task oriented cohesion: The team exists and survives in order to be successful at the chosen sport. Everyone in the team has the same goal

Social oriented cohesion: The team exists and survives due to the social relationships and interactions within the team. Results do not really matter, enjoyment is key to the teams survival

Task-oriented teams have a higher potential for success than social oriented teams. This is especially clear in sports such as football and basketball, as opposed to badminton and athletics.

Abilities and Skills :



Abilities :

Your ability is the skills and qualities which make it possible for you to achieve a task. These are stable and enduring characteristics which are genetic and can be either completely perceptual, completely motor or a combination (known as psychomotor).


Here is a list of abilities which are relevant to Phisical Education and can be assessed:

Co-ordination
Flexibility
Balance
Muscular power
Muscular endurance


Skills :

A skill is the combined ability and knowledge which allow you to complete a task to a high standard. Skills are:

Learnt
Permanent changes in behaviour
Aimed at achieving a goal
Learning of the skill is demonstrated by changes in the consistency of performance, making it more efficient and successful
As with abilities, skills can be perceptual, motor or psychomotor (a combination). Skills can be classified on the continuums shown below:





The diagram above demonstrates the skills continuums. As an example, the precision of a movement can be fine (small, accurate movements, as in an archery shot) or gross (large, dynamic movements, as during a butterfly swimming race) or anywhere along the continuum inbetween. Movements can be continuous, such cycling, where the movement repeats over and over, serial, where there are distinct parts within a movement, or discrete, where there is a definite beginning and end.

Theories of Learning :


In order to produce a successful response to a problem, the athlete must find a solution. If a solution works and the problem is resolved, they will be rewarded and are then likely to repeat the behaviour. This scenario involving learning new skills has been examined by many psychologists, who have put forward the following theories:


Classical Conditioning :

Russian physiologist Pavlov came up with this theory having performed an experiment using dogs. A bell was rung at dinner times, just before their food was brought out. Before long, the dogs started associating the bell with food and would start salivating at the sound of the bell, before food was even presented.

It can be difficult to find examples of this within the sporting world. Something like a referee blowing the whistle signifying that play should stop is a good example. The athletes know what to do without having to think about it.


Operant Conditioning :

Skinners theory of operant conditioning involves the correct response to a situation or task being rewarded. This reinforces the correct response. This behaviour is shaped by the coach and the player need not understand why they are performing like this, just that they will be rewarded if they do it correctly. Examples in sport are situations such as football shooting practice. The coach may direct the players to strike the ball into the right of the goal. If this is done they are rewarded. The area is then reduced to the top half of the right side, and then maybe the top right hand corner only. Rewarding this behaviour strengthens the link.


Trial and Error Learning :

We have all heard of finding a solution by trial and error. It involves testing various methods of achieving a goal until you find one that works. This can be a slow process. A sporting example is changing your grip in racket sports.


Thorndike's Law :

Law of exercise - rehearsing (or exercising) the stimulus-response (SR) connections helps strengthen them and reinforce the correct skill
Law of effect - If the skill is followed by a pleasant reaction, then the SR bond is further strengthened. If the following reaction is negative, then the SR bond is weakened
Law of readiness - The athlete must be both mentally and physically capable of performing the skill efficiently
Problem Solving

This theory centres on the intelligence of the performer. The athlete needs to see the whole situation and find a way to respond effectively.



Feedback :

Feedback is beneficial in improving performance and is used either during or after the event.


Intrinsic feedback :

This comes from within the athlete, during the performance. The feeling that a tennis shot was good or that a distance runner has 'plenty left in the tank' are examples of intrinsic feedback


Extrinsic feedback :

This occurs after the performance from someone other than the athlete, usually a coach or family/friends. It is sometimes also called augmented feedback. Extrinsic feedback can be subdivided into:

Knowledge of results (KR) - Feedback on the consequences of a performance - e.g. the score/winning/loosing

Knowledge of performance (KP) - Feedback about the way the skill was performed - e.g. video analysis



Feedback can be motivating, reinforcing and informational. Both success and failure can motivate the athlete to do even better, or avoid further failure. It can reinforce the correct skill, as in Thordike's law (above) and inform the athlete of faults in their performance or particularly well executed skills.

Leadership :


Leadership involves personal relationships, setting examples, motivation of the team and encouragement of individuals.


Leadership Qualities :

The trait theory suggests that leaders are born with their leadership qualities.

The social learning theory states that leaders learn to use their skills to meet the demands of the situation

Leaders usually either emerge from within a group due to the selection by other team members or their talent and qualities. Or are selected by the teacher/coach etc.


The qualities usually present in a leader include :

Good communication skills
Enthusiasm
High motivation
Vision of the task in hand
High ability
Charisma



Leadership Styles :

Leaders can be grouped into one of the following two types, although most good leaders are a bit of both!

Task oriented: Focus solely on the task in hand

Person oriented: Focus on the interpersonal relationships within the team

Fiedler theorised that task oriented leaders are more successful when a situation is either very positive or very negative. More example when the team are winning easily or when the team are loosing badly and demotivation may become a factor. A person oriented leader is likely to more successful in moderate situations.



The following continuum has also been designed to show the types of leadership style:

Authoritarian: Task oriented and dictator style. Makes all the decisions and very direct in their approach

Democratic: person oriented and takes into account team members ideas and feelings, shows interest in others

Laissez-faire: Provides little support or input and lets team members do as they wish

Good leaders, whether they be task or person orientated will use all five of the following behaviours, as and when they are required by the situation.

Rewarding behaviour
Social support
Autocratic behaviour
Democratic behaviour
Training and behaviour

Information Processing :

When we are performing a skill, many decisions must be made. For example, if making an overhead clear in badminton, we must decide, where to aim the shot, how hard to hit it, where to position ourselves afterwards etc etc. The diagram below shows the process involved in making such decisions. This is closely related to the Open Loop Theory as all information is received in one block and feedback does not influence the action.





The next image demonstrates what happens when feedback is also incorporated as occurs in the Closed Loop Theory.





Response Time :

Response (or reaction) time, is a persons ability to take in and process information to make a decision and then put this into action. Measurement of response time is achieved by timing the space between the first presentation of the stimulus (e.g. an unexpected shot in football) to the end of your reaction movement (e.g. the goalkeeper diving to save it)

Response time is affected by the following:

Hicks Law:

The time to make a decision increases, with the more choices which are available, as shown in the graph below:






Age :

Reaction time speeds up as we develop through childhood, into adulthood, to an optimal point where it then deteriorates again


Presentation of Stimuli in Rapid Succession :

This is also sometimes referred to as the psychological refractory period. It is a delay in response to a second stimuli which comes in close succession to the last. For example, when playing hockey, a dummy or fake movement works to put the defender off as they initiate a response to this dummy which they must then stop and correct with a response for the attackers actual movement.


Sex :

Males tend to have a faster response time than females, although this deteriorates more rapidly in old age.


Stimulus-Response Compatibility :

If the stimulus is expected then the reaction is quicker than if it is unexpected. For example, a goalkeepers reaction to a penalty will be faster than their reaction to an unexpected shot from outside the box.


Experience :

The ability to use past experiences to select the correct reaction speeds up the response time


Stimulus Intensity :

The stronger the stimulus is, the faster the reaction will be. This is because it is easier to focus the selective attention on strong stimuli. With weaker stimuli, more irrelevant information is taken in.


Anticipation :

If an event is anticipated then often the movements required for the reaction are prepared and began before the stimulus occurs. This is known as spatial anticipation. The best example of this is a false start by a sprinter - they were anticipating the gun and the motor programme began too early!