Body & Mind Training Center

Memory



•The aim of this part is to learn about how our memories store and recall information, using this to make decisions

Without memory, information processing and skill learning is not possible. The memory is a complicated thing and the whole process of memorising a skill or event is not yet known


The following tries to explain the process as it is understood so far:

1.A stimulus triggers the senses (sight; sound; touch; smell; taste)
2.The information received from the senses enters the Short-Term Sensory Store (STSS)
3.It is stored here for a maximum of 1 second and is filtered down to relevant information
4.Irrelevant information is discarded
5.The relevant information is passed to the Short-Term Memory (STM)
6.Information is stored here on a limited capacity for up to 1 minute
7.The information here is used to make decisions - these decisions are made more quickly if information from the long-term memory is used to compare with the current information
8.Important information is moved onto the next stage:
9.The Long-Term Memory (LTM) has a potentially endless capacity and can hold information for a long time, this is achieved by:
•Practicing skills or rehearsing information which strengthens the motor programme
•Association means the new information is linked to a previously stored memory
•Meaningfulness of the information helps you remember it
•Novelty - information which stands out from the crowd of other memories tends to be remembered!

There are thought to be three main areas of storage within the LTM:

1.Procedural: This is where motor programmes are stored as it contains the information allowing us to remember how to do things
2.Semantic: This area contains knowledge and facts
3.Episodic: This is where personal experiences and events are kept

Post traumatic amnesia

Post-traumatic amnesia is a state of confusion or memory loss that occurs immediately following a traumatic brain injury. The injured person is disoriented and unable to remember events that occur after the injury, and may be unable to state their name, where they are, and what time it is, etc.

The amnesia resulting from a trauma may be retrograde amnesia (loss of memories that were formed shortly before the injury, particularly where there is damage to the frontal or anterior temporal regions) or anterograde amnesia (problems with creating new memories after the injury has taken place), or both. In some cases, anterograde amnesia may not develop until several hours after the injury.

Post-traumatic amnesia may be either short term, or longer lasting (often over a month - see box at right), but is hardly ever permanent. When continuous memory returns, the person can usually function normally. Retrograde amnesia sufferers may partially regain memory later, but memories are never regained with anterograde amnesia because they were not encoded properly.

Memories from just before the trauma are often completely lost, partly due to the psychological repression of unpleasant memories (psychogenic amnesia), and partly because memories may be incompletely encoded if the event interrupts the normal process of transfer from short-term to long-term memory.

Motor Programmes and Schema Theory


Motor Programmes :

Motor programmes are the way in which our brains control our movements. There are two theories concerning this topic:


Open Loop Theory :

This theory states the following:

Decisions are made in the brain
All information for one movement is sent in a single message
The message is received by the muscles which perform the movement
Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn't control the action
This theory accounts well for fast continuous movements (e.g. a golf swing), although it does not work so well for slower movements which may involve reactions and repositioning (such as a gymnast on the balance beam).

Closed Loop Theory :

On the other hand, this theory explains slow movements well but not fast movements.

Decisions are made in the brain
Not all of the information is sent together
Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement
Feedback is always available and is vital to correct movement patterns and adjust to changing needs


Schema Theory :



Schema: All of the information needed to make a movement decision. It is stored in the brain as a long-term memory.



The schema theory challenges the open and closed loop theories and was developed by Schmidt in 1977. He suggested that motor programmes can be clustered and are changeable to respond to the situation. He also stated that the larger the motor programme that is achieved through practice, the easier it can be adapted to new situations.

Recall Schema :

This occurs before a movement is initiated and includes the following information which the performer must know to form a schema:

Initial Conditions:

Where is the: Goal; Opposition; Team mates
What is the environment like?: Grass; Astro turf; Wet or dry; Wind
What condition am I in?: Fresh; Tired; Injured
Response Specification

How fast do I need to go?
Where do I kick at first ?
How hard do I need to kick the opponent ?
Which techniques will produce the best results ?


Recognition Schema :

In order to correct or alter a response, the athlete needs to know:

Movement Outcomes:

From knowledge of results (KR): Success / Failure

Sensory Consequence:

From knowledge of performance (KP): How did it look (extrinsic feedback) / how did it feel (intrinsic feedback)

Teaching Styles :

The styles of teaching that an instructor, coach or teacher adopts depends upon their own personality and ability, the activity and skill being taught, the learners ability, motivation, age and the learning environment.

Mosston and Ashworth Spectrum of Styles :

This continuum is based upon the ratio of decision making on the side of the teacher, compared to the student (s). The diagram below demonstrates the continuum between a wholly teacher decided style and one where the pupils make the majority of the decisions.



Mosston and Ashworth Spectrum of Styles

This continuum is based upon the ratio of decision making on the side of the teacher, compared to the student (s). The diagram below demonstrates the continuum between a wholly teacher decided style and one where the pupils make the majority of the decisions.






Styles A and B: The teacher makes the majority of the decisions and uses a command style ensuring all learners do the same thing

Styles C and D: The pupils make some of the decisions. The teacher will provide instructions with alternatives for the students to choose between activities, or ways of varying the activity. This is a reciprocal style

Styles E, F and G: These are democratic styles of teaching, where the pupils are involved in the decision making process, often involving negotiation or voting

Styles H, I and J: The pupils make most or all of the decisions in what are usually problem-solving type activities.



Guidance :

Guidance is required in the process of transmitting information about a skill to the learner. The form this guidance takes can be either visual, verbal or manual. A combination of all of these forms of guidance are usually most successful.

Visual Guidance :

This is the use of a demonstration to help guide the performer to form a mental picture and reproduce the movement. The demonstration, or model, must be as perfect as possible and must be realistic. Forms of demonstration other than live models can be used, for example photos, diagrams (although very static) and video. The display can also be enhanced by increasing the visual stimulus, for example placing targets on the court.

Verbal Guidance :

This is thought to be the least useful style of guidance when used in isolation. It is most often used in conjunction with visual guidance. The teacher provides cues for the athlete to remind them of parts of the skill, for example, saying "keep your eyes on the ball" to a batter, just before a ball is bowled in rounders. It is important to consider, when using verbal guidance, if the performer understands what is being said, if they can remember the information being given and if they can translate this into an action.

Manual Guidance :

Manual guidance can come from another person or an object to help the performer learn a movement whilst building confidence and getting a sense of how it should feel. Examples of guidance are a teacher moving a students arms through the required motion for a tennis shot, and using armbands or a float when learning to swim. The kind of guidance where the teacher guides the student through a movement is known as forced response. This is useful to give the player a feel for the movement although if it is used continuously they may become dependant on it or loose motivation.

Motivation



Motivation is thought to be a combination of the drive within us to achieve our aims and the outside factors which affect it. With this in mind, motivation has the following two forms, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.


Intrinsic motivation :

This is motivation from within. A desire to perform well and succeed. The following will be true:

Desire to overcome the problem or task
Development of skills and habits to overcome that problem
Rehearsal of successful habits until they are perfect
A feeling of pride and enjoyment in performing the skill
Repeated goal setting in order to progress and maintain motivation
Goals must be all of the following in order to be attainable:

Smart
Measurable
Agreed
Realistic
Time related
Exciting
Recorded


Extrinsic motivation :


Extrinsic motivation comes from a source outside of the performer. These are things which can encourage the athlete to perform and fall into two groups:

Tangible rewards: Physical rewards such as medals and money. These should be used sparingly with young athletes to avoid a situation where winning a prize is more important than competing well

Intangible rewards: Praise, recognition and achievements. These should be used on a regular basis to encourage the athlete to repeat the behaviour which earned the praise.

Motivation, Arousal and Performance

Motivation is related to the intensity and direction of behaviour. That is, the level of arousal and the way in which we behave affect our motivation and hence performance. There are currently two theories which try to explain this link:


Hull's Drive Theory:

This demonstrates a linear relationship between performance and arousal. This means at low levels of arousal, performance is low and performance increases in line with an increase in arousal. This is shown in the graph below.






This theory also explains that novices to the sport often do not perform well under pressure and their skill level decreases due to poor habits and ill- learned techniques. Habits are described as the performance which is dominant within each person. Experienced athletes tend to perform better under pressure due to their superior skills and the use of stress management techniques. This theory can be expressed using the following equation:

Performance = habit x drive (arousal)



Inverted U Law:


This law states that arousal improves performance up to an optimal point. Past this point, performance begins to decrease. When drawn on a graph this appears as an upside down U shape.






There are three rules which surround this theory:


Activity: Some sports are better performed at low arousal, mainly those which require small, precision movements and control, e.g. shooting
Skill level: Beginners to a sport require all of their attention to be focused on the task in hand and so do not cope as well with over-arousal. Highly skilled individuals have the skill well practiced and so do not require such high levels of concentration meaning they can deal better with the arousal level.
Personality: Extroverts perform better in high-pressure, high arousal situations. Introverts tend to do better in a state of low arousal. This is thought to be connected to part of the brain called the RAS or reticular activating system. This controls the level of arousal. Introverts have a highly stimulated RAS and so avoid stressful situations, whereas extroverts need high arousal situations to stimulate the RAS

Motivation and Personality

Some people are more naturally driven to achieve set goals than others. These people like to push and challenge themselves. What is it within this type of person that motivates them? And why do others not have this desire?

It is thought that when it comes to motivation, there are two personality types:

Need to Achieve (NACH :

These are the people that thrive on a challenge. They are usually determined, quick workers who take risks and enjoy being assessed. Most sports people fall into this group.

Need to Avoid Failure (NAF :

These people tend to avoid challenges because they do not want to risk failing. They are slow workers who avoid responsibility, are easily dissuaded from taking part and do not like being assessed.

Within those who compete in sports, there are those who are ego oriented and those who are task oriented.

Ego oriented - measure their success on beating others and being the 'top' competitor

Task oriented - Measure their success by their own achievements such as running a problem.


Self-Confidence :

The Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura identified a specific form of confidence, known as self-efficacy. This is not an overall self-confidence but varies within each situation we find ourselves in. Most people will choose to participate in sports at which they have a high self-efficacy, or belief in their ability at the task in hand.

Self-efficacy is affected by four factors:

Performance accomplishments - Past achievements in the activity encourage a feeling of self-efficacy
Vicarious experiences - Seeing someone else, who you believe to be of the same or lower standard to yourself, complete the task well provides confidence that you too can achieve
Verbal persuasion - Encouragement and positive words from those close to you can instill a sense of confidence
Emotional arousal - Control over arousal levels provides greater self-efficacy
These four factors can help athletes with low self-efficacy to boost their confidence and perform better by:

Setting achievable goals and highlighting successes
Using a peer to demonstrate new techniques
Promoting support and encouragement from the athletes family and friends
Using stress management techniques to aid relaxation


Experience :

Past performances and experiences will influence an athletes confidence. Their last performance will affect they way the approach the next performance.

Weiner related this to examinations and produced a 2D model. This was not thought to be specific enough to sports and so Roberts and Pascuzzi adapted the model in 1979.





Successes are often attributed to internal causes whereas failure is often blamed on external factors such as equipment and officials! This is called a self-serving bias.

Repeated failures or disappointments often lead to the belief that failure is inevitable in certain situations, leading to feelings that the outcome is uncontrollable. This is known as learned helplessness.